Music, sports, crime and Rastafari

My coming of age was the mid-1950s to mid-1960s, a turning point in Jamaica's development. In 1955, Jamaica celebrated its tercentenary under British rule and seven years later it celebrated its independence from British colonial rule. I recall vividly the scorn, victimisation and false accusations meted out to those who were bold enough - some would say foolish enough - to embrace the Rastafari movement as their religious guide, and sociocultural way of life. My Rastafari mentors, Sam Brown, Mortimo Planno, dreadlocks from western Kingston, and Philmore Alvaranga, Sam Clayton, Dougie Mac, Count Ossie 'Combsomes' from eastern Kingston, were opposed to Rastas being identified as Rastafarian. 'Rastafarian' was the identity given to them by the state apparatus, and signified a cult of wrongdoers. And as a young journalist sympathetic to the movement, I was expected to impart this in my articles.

The fundamental role of music in Jamaica's development is undeniable, despite the lack of acceptance and support in its early evolution by the ruling elite. Music permeated the entire society, with chamber music, orchestras, and recitals indulged in by the middle and upper classes, mostly light skinned, high school and college educated, with ties to the United Kingdom and the United States. It was, however, the music emanating from the working class and peasants living mainly in Kingston - many transported from the rural areas seeking a better life by way of urban employment in factories, haberdasheries, the waterfront, railway, and entrepreneurs in the service sectors to support the burgeoning working class - that the majority of Jamaicans were entertained by.

It was initially the music of mento and calypso. Entertainers such as Lord Flea, Lord Fly, Louise Bennett, Harry Belafonte, and Count Lasher were among the first music stars of Jamaican culture.

Simultaneously, sports was the other vehicle for exposing mass talent and bringing pride and entertainment to the growing Jamaican populace. Cricket, boxing, track and field, cycling and football were the main sporting activities for the young working-class talent. In cricket emerged George Headley, Ken 'Bam Bam' Weekes, Esmond Kentish, J.K. Holt, Collie Smith; in boxing, Joe Bygraves, Kid Banga, Bunny Grant, Alan Harmon, Gerald Gray, Percy Hayles; track and field delivered Herb McKenley, Arthur Wint, Les Laing, George Rhoden, George Kerr; cycle sports gave us Frankie 'Gungo' Minott, C. 'Bubbling Over' McPherson, Roy 'Champion Charlie' Brown, Donald 'Toe Strap' Linton; and football produced Lindy Delapenha, Lester Alcock, Gil Heron, Arthur McKenzie, and Syddie 'The Worm' Bartlett.

Greatest opportunities

It was sports that brought youths of different classes together, and provided the greatest opportunities for the less-privileged youths to make something meaningful of their lives. In those earlier times, sports participation did not offer a good living wage, but it exposed one to those who could offer employment, and upward mobility in a very class-oriented Jamaican society.

Crime, however, was always present and growing, especially among the inner-city male population faced with poor family upbringing; a disregard for, and limited access to, good education; and lack of employment and economic opportunities. However, the Rastafari movement, a growing music industry and sports were there at the forefront to help stem the descent into criminal activities by thousands of youths.

In the cases of Rastafari and music, both were led, and in the case of Rastafari, founded by young black Jamaican men. The central attraction of the Rastafari movement for the vast majority of Jamaican males, and some females, was not its central tenet of the divinity of Haile Selassie, or the use of marijuana as its sacrament, but the philosophical principles of Marcus Garvey that guided it: the black man had great value. Africa was a great continent. Peace and love.

Rastafari founders Leonard Howell, Joseph Hibbert, Archibald Dunkley and Robert Hinds were all young black men in the Jamaican diaspora of the 1920s and '30s who were influenced and guided by another Jamaican in the diaspora, Marcus Garvey. And it is only appropriate that the Jamaican Government bestow honours on these four men for starting a movement in Jamaica that has grown exponentially to impact world philosophy, culture and ways of life.

Cosmopolitan roots

The Jamaican music business and Rastafari had common growth paths. The music business, though started technically by people of privilege and non-black ethnicities - namely Stanley Motta, Jewish; Ken Khouri, Lebanese; and 'Dada' Tewari, Indian - were quickly joined by black Jamaicans from the working class and peasantry - namely Arthur 'Duke' Reid, Clement 'Coxson' Dodd, 'King' Edwards, and Cecil 'Prince Buster' Campbell, as well as Edward Seaga, of Lebanese and American heritage, and others such as Ivan Chin, Leslie Kong and Byron Lee of Chinese heritage. But the overwhelming majority of the entertainers - singers coming mostly from western Kingston, musicians coming mainly from eastern Kingston - were products of the black Jamaican working class and peasantry, the urban poor.

Many of these great musicians, Tommy McCook, 'Dizzy' Johnny Moore, Rolando Alphonso, Lester 'Ska' Sterling, Don Drummond, Alphonso 'Dizzy' Reece, Wilton 'Bogey' Gaynair, Harold 'Little G' McNair, Rico Rodriguez were graduates of reformatory schools, mainly Alpha Boys' School and Stony Hill Reformatory for wayward boys. These musicians were all influenced by the practices and philosophy of the Rastafari movement, in particular the socialisation around the Count Ossie Rastafari camp in Rockfort and Wareika Hill in eastern Kingston.

Similarly, many singers were inner-city youths exposed to criminal elements, some having relatives and close friends involved in criminal activities, and were it not for them pursuing musical careers might also be engrossed in criminality. However, Rastafari influenced these entertainers in a positive direction, and impacted the lyrical content of their output. Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, among many others, stand testament to this.

I recall the first time Rasta as a path to follow was imparted to me, it was 1958, while attending Elletson Primary School in Franklin Town, by the duo Bunny and Skitter, possessing some of the sweetest harmonies ever recorded in Jamaica. They were among the earliest non-mento, non-calypso recording artistes, who were adherents of Rastafari. Rasta communities throughout Jamaica began producing some highly creative and hard-working artisans, tradesmen, musicians and singers.

Rastafari's emergence

It was in the 1960s that Rastafari had its most dynamic growth and influence. Many of us from working middle-class Christian homes were now attending leading high schools, but bitter towards the inequalities in the society experienced by our parents, mostly black. Rastafari was the only medium that championed equal rights, justice, 'righteousness' and progress for our class. Wearing dreadlocks was not the choice of our generation, but indulgence in the use of marijuana, the sacrament of Rastafari, was something that many of us gravitated to.

Marijuana use was also prevalent among the musicians and singers who were putting out the new Jamaica sounds of ska, rocksteady and reggae. It was the youths, many attending high schools such as Kingston College, Wolmer's, Jamaica College, Excelsior, Kingston Technical, and St George's College, of the early and mid-'60s that accepted and promoted the music of the '60s performed by the Skatalites, the Wailers, Higgs and Wilson, Alton Ellis, Delroy Wilson, the Paragons and so many others. The established St Andrew middle class, save for the very few renegades, frowned on the music of the masses.

A crucible for the coexistence of music, sports, crime and Rastafari was Dunoon Park or Wembley in Rollington Town, to which I was exposed between 1960 and 1968. It was a melting pot of urban talent, focusing primarily on sports in the 1950s, but encompassed the other elements of music, crime and Rastafari in the '60s. There was also an effort by the Methodist Church and others to operate a Girls' Town there to train young girls in home economics, which didn't last long because of the abundance of males aggressively intimidating the girls.

Four footballers emerged from there to represent Jamaica: Paul Thomas, Clive 'Ishi' McRae, Lloyd 'Babu' McRae, and Howard Bell. Representing in cricket were Brandeis Johnson, Wesley 'Bunny Toe' Taylor, John 'Ret' Prescod, and there were several other outstanding players who could have made the Jamaica team but for their perceived 'badness' and unwillingness to bend to authority. And representing at track and field, the outstanding Jamaican sprinter Donald Quarrie, whose school Camperdown High School trained there.

It was also a central point for music lovers, credited for being the first Kingston dancehall that Merritone Music from Morant Bay, played at in 1962. Members of the Gaylads, Bop and the Belltones and many other practising and aspiring entertainers worked out there, as well as memorable dance promotions. And, significantly, as would be expected, such a meeting place would attract criminal elements, and young revolutionaries opposed to blatant class inequalities in the Jamaican society and the repressiveness of the state towards young black males.

Powerful influence

But the overreaching element was the influence of Rastafari on all those who gathered. The Rastafari leadership came from brothers like Eric 'Ras Historian' Clement and Carlos, the groundsman. Reading followed by discussions on topics ranging from world politics, sports, current affairs to agriculture were in order. Oftentimes, those attending high schools were called upon to read to the gatherings from newspapers, magazines, historical books, and the Bible. Mutual respect was very evident.

For while from criminals to Christians would meet on the playing field, there were no insults extended to those who chose to leave the area as quickly as the games are over, only to return the following day to compete on the same team or against each other in football or cricket. Education and talent were extolled. A young Don Quarrie and his coach, Mr Messam, were given great respect. And likewise, Prescod, who we recognised as a brilliant batsman and all-round cricketer, who went on to become aide-de-camp to the governor general, a lieutenant colonel in the Jamaica Defence Force, and commissioner of prisons.

This phenomenon was not exclusive to Wembley, now a high school, but emerged in other areas of Kingston, and for that Jamaica. Interestingly, Carl Smith a Wembley regular of the '60s, returned to coach Dunoon Technical to a 1998 Manning Cup victory. Wembley happened with minimal or no input, guidance or management from the state or non-profit organisations. Dr Walter Rodney, the University of the West Indies historian, saw the potential of these gatherings and tried to exploit it to espouse his new social order, but was quickly stopped by the government of the day.

As Jamaica enters its 50th year of Independence, it is important that Jamaicans recognise and give credit to all the elements that contributed to developing this remarkable society. And, in particular, the role of Rastafari in pointing a way for urban and rural youths away from crime and towards self-improvement, self-pride, creativity and productivity.

Julian 'Jingles' Reynolds is a writer, filmmaker and entrepreneur operating in the US and Jamaica. He is celebrating 45 years as a published writer. Email feedback to columns@gleanerjm.com and fiwipro@yahoo.com.